DISTANCE LEARNING

A.   DISTANCE LEARNING

     Distance education has become the popular to describe learning via telecommunication. In this chapter the term communications embraces a wide variety of media configuration, including radio, telephone and television (broadcast, cable, and satellite). What they all have in common is implied in the Greek root word tele which means “at a distance“ or “a far of” that is they are system for communicating over or distance.

1.   Elementary Education 

   At the elementary school, teachers tend to use pre-recorded video cassettes more often than live broadcast television programs. Still, several broadcast series are frequently used: at the elementary level, Sesame Street and Barney; at the intermediate, reading, rainbow, big comfy, Arthur, and zoom. These programs are used mainly as enrichment rather than as the core of instruction. Teachers who use educational televisions programming tend to used more than one program usually two or three but not a whole series ( Children’s Television Workshop 1990)

2.   Secondary Education

   At the secondary school, television is used mainly to expand the curricular offering of specific high school. Rural school are thus able to offer a full core curriculum. In advanced or specialized subject foe which there are not enough students in one school to justify hiring a teacher schools administration frequently use televisions to connect several school, thus creating a large enough “class” to be affordable.

3.   Postsecondary Education 

   At the postsecondary education, telecommunication systems are used extensively for both on campus education. Hundreds and community colleges , technical school, colleges, and universities in Nort America use telecommunication as part of their regular instructional programs. The purpose generally is to expand the number of students who can be reached by one instructor in a given source.

B.   INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS

   Regardless of the technology used, from lived teacher to computer conferencing an instructional telecommunications system must perform certain function to be effective.

C.   BROADCAST RADIO

   When we listen to radio, we hear electronic signal that are broadcast or transmitted through the air over regular AM and FM Radio frequencies. Broadcast radio can be adapted to educational use. Although such radio is basically a format for one way lectures or dramatic presentations, some degree of interactivity can be added by using printed materials to accompany the programs and requiring listeners to send responses back to originator. Some programs provide a telephone number for the student to contact the instructor.

Advantages

   • Cost . Radio is a less expensive broadcast medium than is television. It is still used in developing countries and in other localities where there are geographic or economic constrains on the technologies they can employ.
   • Range. Radio programs  can reach and larger geographically dispersed population with single message.
   • Imagination stimulator. Because radio is an audio only medium, listeners are free to use their imaginations to create the image.
   • Flexibility. The audio medium is extremely flexible and can have a powerful, dramatic effect, particularly, for conveying music, discussion, and story telling.
Limitations
   • Operating expense. It is difficult to justify the expense of operating broadcast facilities when pre-recorded materials are readily available.
   • Schedule. Broadcast radio is being displaced by pre-recorder material. Instructors and student resist using media that must be according to a rigid schedule.

D.   AUDIO CONFERENCE

1.   Audio conference
   The audio conference is an extension of a simple telephone call. Advances in telephone technology phone now allow individuals or groups of people at two or more locations to hear and be heard cleary and easily.

Advantages

   • Cost effective. The audio teleconference is often seen as a cost-effective way to hold a meeting or training session without the expense of time and money involved in travel. School invite an expert “into the classroom” to engage in a dialogue with students .
   • Easy to use. It is the most easily accessible form of telecommunication because is uses standard telephone service. Commercial phone companies have made is easy to set up audio teleconference from any touch tone phone.
   • Interactive. All participant get the same interactivity. They can talk to the instructor a guest speaker or the other participant.

Limitations

   • Lack of visual information. The lack of visual dimensional proses limitations. This can be offset by arranging to have material in the sites in advance.
   • Poor audio. To have acceptable  audio quality, each receiving site needs to have special microphone amplifier advice.
   • Intimidating. Lack of experience with this type of communication technology may make some learners less willing to participate.

2.   Audio Graphic Teleconference

   An audio graphic teleconference adds still-pictures transmission to an audio teleconference. Several different devices can be used to send pictures graphic over the same telephone lines as the voice signal: slow-scan (single scan)analog video, facsimile(fax) paper copies, or an electronic graphic tablet. The common denominator in these devices is a method of covering the image digital form for transmission.

Advantages

   • Visual. The big advantage of audio graphic systems over other audio formats is the addition of the visual element.
   • Cost. Unless full-motion images are needed, audio graphics can be provide and audio visual experience at a fraction of the cost of television.

Limitations

   • Availability. Audio graphic technologies are not readily available.
   • Time factor. It can take nearly a full minute to transmit a still image via fax or slow scan technologies.

E.   TELEVISION IN DISTANCE LEARNING 

1.   One-Way Video, One-Way Audio

   Of all the uses of television in education, the viewing of pre-recorded video cassettes and videodiscs is the most common. Here we will consider the next most common form of television use live viewing of programs without direct feedback to the presenter.

2.   Two-way video, Two-way Audio

    Fully interactive television with two way communication of both audio and video, or two way television is achieved by equipping both the sending and receiving sites with camera and microphone and interconnecting them by some means capable of two way transmission. This may be fiber optics, cable, microwave, satellite, or a combination of these. A school or other organization may operate its own video teleconference facilities or lease them as needed for specific occasions.

3.   Online Technologies

    Online technologies (those that rely on computer based systems) have opened up a new array of distance learning opportunities. Where once students had to drive a short distance to attend a class conveyed by a video or audio connection, computer-based system let them remain in learning activities. Software programs, cameras, and array of resources can give students distance learning. Students can attend class at designated time, can participate, in an audio, video, or text-based chat, can post to bulletin board discussion and can access information. It is possible for a mixture of distance learning technologies to take advantage of the contributions of each type of technology.

F.   DISTANCE LEARNING ISSUES

1.   Role of Students 

     Student need to know their roles in a distance learning experience. Early attempt at this type of instruction tended to involved a” talking head” with student passivelly  sitting in the distance sites, often not attending to the “head”. More recently, with technological advances, interaction among students and between sites is feasible. Student can be become more engaged in their learning. It remains the teacher responsibility, however to guide students on how on interact appropriately.

2.   Role of teacher

     When we begin to talk about the teacher in the distance learning classroom, it is necessary to think about the setting in a new light. The classroom is now a series of “rooms” connected electrically. The origination classroom is the one where the teacher is present. Distance sites or remote classrooms are the location connected by the telecommunication systems. At the distance sites, they may be only one or two students or there may be a full class. Additionally there may be a distance site facilitator, an adult whose responsibility it is to work with the teacher. The facilitator may be another teacher or a classroom aide. The duties of a facilitator vary depending on the course content and the origination classroom teacher’s needs.

3.   Visualizing instruction

    With technologies for distance learning that rely on television, the teacher may need to change existing  teaching  materials. The document camera is a valuable teaching tool for showing student visuals and for demonstrating specifics task. Although teacher may be able to use classroom materials such as overhead transfarencies, these materials tend to be in a format not easily visible on the monitors. Television has a horizontal or landscape orientations, which mean that materials prepare in a vertical orientation will not be as easily seen. It may  be necessary to redo materials. One suggestion is to have all classroom materials prepared so they can be used in either a regular or a television classroom setting.

4.   Accessing resource at a distance

    One element often overlooked in a distance learning situation is the access students have to resource materials. The amount of available information resources is expanding at an exponential rate.

Advantages

   • Cost efficiency. All forms of broadcasting share the attribute of teaching geographically dispersed audiences in a cost-efficiency way.
   • Audio visual capacity. All television system allow a transmission of motion images and sound image distance.
   • Two way possibilities. When learner can communicate with the instructor and other student via telephone or two way video, you can approximate a live classroom interactions.
   • Online possibilities. When available, online technologies can provide access to resource an two interaction that might not be  otherwise possible.

Limitations

   • Cost for two way . Adding or capacity for two communication may require costly hardware installation, including a bridge if multiple sites are connected at once. If using telephone, there may be toll charge for the call.
   • Facilities for two way. The special setups needed   for two way video require that a classroom be dedicated to this used, thus making it difficult to use the rooms for other purpose.
   • Technical problem. Technical problem may interrupt the instructions and may create confusion and frustration for the instructor  and students .
   • Isolation. learners to participate in broadcasting lessons without talkback capacibilities can feel like second class citizen having little rapport with the rest of the group.
   • Inexperience. Instructors may not feel comfortable teaching in this type of setting.
   • Reluctance. Students may be reluctance to assume greater responsibility for their own learning.
   • Connectivity. Students may have difficulty making certain types of online connections due to their type of access to the internet.

      Source : Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino et. 2002. Instructural Media  and Technologies for Learning volume 7. California: The University of California.

INTERNET AND INTRANET

A. INTERNET
     The internet is a frequently changing collection of millions of computer networks serving tens of millions of people around the world. Users can access any information, regardless of the type of computer they have, because of standard protocols that allow all computers to communicate with each other. Most information is shared without change except for whatever access fee is required ti maintain an account with an Internet Service Provider(ISP) such as America Online(AOL), Prodigy, or any of the many local or community ISPs. Connecting with other computers requires a modem, a device that changes computer data into audio signals for transmission across the telephone lines.
1). Internet Services

     The internet connects thousands of computer networks worldwide. It provides users with several basic types of connection services :
   a. Electronic mail(E-mail) for person to person communication.
   b. A type of electronic, public bulletin board enabling a person to connect with a group interested in the same topic.
   c. Information searcg capabilities for accessing libraries and databases of information throughout the world.
   d. Access to highly specialized computer prorams not readily available to individuals
   e. "Live" communication, allowing individuals on the internet at the same time to"chat" or "talk" in real time, as quickly as they can type their messages.
   f. Audio communication, allowing individuals with appropriate software to loterally talk with each other as they would do ever the telephone.
   g. Video based communication, through sofrware such as CU-SeeMe and NetMeeting, letting individuals or small groups see and hear each other and ahow objects in real time.
2). Internet Address

     An internet address contains three parts : the person's name or username (pseudonym), the computer network where they can be reached, and the type of organization they are a part of. For example, the following is the e-mail address for one of this book's authors :
   a. Organization Abbreviations.
- Commercial = com
- Educational = edu
- Government(U.S) = gov
- Military (U.S) = mil
- Service networks = net
- Nonprofit organization = org
Additional designations are being proposed as this book goes to press, in an international effort to accomodate the rapidly growing nunber of internet users throughout the world.
   b. International Abbreviations.
Each country outside The U.S has its own two-letter abbreviation that appears in place of the organization, as in the following examples :
- Australia = au
- Canada = ca
- Italy = it
- Mexico = mx
- Netherlands = nl
3). Internet Usage

     Internet users can communicate with one another by participating in discussion groups, of which there are two types : newsgroups (sometimes called chat groups or conferences) and mailing lists (also called listservs). Both newsgroups and mailing lists are typically dedicated to a single subject,vand allow you to read comments, questions, and between of others on the tlsame subject and to post comments, questions, and answers of your own.
4). Internet Language
     The internet has acquired its oen vocabulary of hundreds of terms.

B. WORLD WIDE WEB : ACCESS TO THE INTERNET

     The world wide web(the WEB) isn't separate from the internet. Instead it rides on top of it, in the same way that an application such as PowerPoint runs on top of an operating system such as Windows. The web protovol, called hypertext transfer protocal(HTTP), ensures compatibility before transferring information. The web is comprised of documents called Web Pages. Each individual collection of pages is called a Website.
1). The Web for Delivery of Instruction
To use the web to deliver instruction, web pages have to be designed and written, and a host computer must be identified to house them. Websites act as information centres and include information about programs of study, products, services, events favilities, and materials available. There are specific steps for the students in a quest :
   a. Introduction : a scenatio points to ket issues or concepts to prepare the students to ask questions
   b. Task : students identify issues or problems and form wuestions for the quest.
   c. Process : students assume roles and begin to identify the procedures they will follow to gather information to answer their questions.
   d. Sources : resources are identified by the teacher and students to investigate in their quest.
   e. Conclusion : this is the end of the quest, but invites students to continue to investigate issues or problems.
• Advantages :
   - Variety of media : The internet is a versatile means of delivering information to learners around the world.
   - Up to date information access : Until recently, educators were limited to the resources in their classrooms or shool buildings.
   - Navigation : A primary advantage of the internet is the ability to move easily within and among documents.
   - Idea exchange : The participate in activities that allow them to exchange ideas with other atudents, even those living in other countries.
   - Low cost : The cost of hardware, software, telephone time, and telecommunication services are nominal and are decreasing.
• Limitations :
   - Copyright : Because information is so easily accessible, it's also very simple for an individuals to quickly download a file.
   - Access speed : Lengthy wait times can be prevented through prudent web page design.
   - Support : Good technical support to be readily available.

C. INTRANET

     Intranets are a way of increasing communication, collaboration, and information dissemination within companies or schools where divisions, departments, and workgroups each yse a different computer platform (hardware or operating system) ,or where users works in geographically distant locations. When using an intranet, it's important that it tie in with the structure, high-level business needs, and information technology of the organization.
• Advantages :
   - Centralization : Information resides in a central database accessible by all employees or students at any time.
   - Consistency.
   - Currency : An intranet allows for easy, low cost, timely updates of materials, removing the need for constantly replacing multiple copies of obsolete materials.
   - Pull versus push approach.
• Limitations :
   - Unreliable remote connections : An employee or learner dialing in from home may occasionally encounter line problems or a broken connection.
   - Speed of response : Response time can be very slow for sending or downloading graphics, photos, animation, audio, or video.

D. WIDE ARE NETWORK (WAN)

     A WAN connects a number of computers within a single institution and beyond with one another. Some WANs use a "hardwired" configuration : a campuswide network connecting all buildings via a cable or fiber system is one such example. Wide are networking via a computer and modem is done from locations throughout the world. A bulletin board posts a common pool of information and messages for a particular interest group.

E. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

     LAN connects computers within a limited area, normally a builfing office, or laboratory. A LAN relies on a centralized computer called a file server that "serves" all other computers connected to it via special writing. A computer lab is often a LAN, because all the computers in the lab are connected to a single file server, which is usually tucked away in a closet or other out of the way space.

F. ISSUES

     The center for education and research in information assurance and security (CERIAS) focuses on multidisciplinary research and education in the areas of information security. The organization is concerned with supporting educators in issues of privacy, ethics, and management of information. Issues such as confidentially of student records, privacy of information, and protection of students while they work online are important considerations.
1). Monitoring Student Use
     The teachers and parents must monitor students when using the internet to ensure that their behavior is appropriate and to discourage them from exploring inappropriate material either deliberately or accidentally. The amount and level of monitoring is often based on the age of the students younger students may need more monitoring than older students.
2). Acceptable Use Policies
     AUPs are agreements among students, parents)guardians and the school administration outlining what is considered proper use of the internet by all parties involved. The policies usually include that the school will do what it can to control access to inappropriate information, that students will accept responsibility for not accessing such information, and that parents understand that there are possibilities that their children may access such information despite the school's efforts.
3). Security
     Students should be instructed not to give out personal information such as their phone numbers, address and other personal informstion over the internet. It may be wise for students to give their school's phone number and address for correspondence. Also, ss an educstor, should be concerned that you have parental premission to post children's photos on the Web.
4). Etiquette
     Using the analogy of the internet as the information superhighway, these are the "rules of the road". Referred to as netiquette, they apply to e-mail and to other interaction on the Web :
   - Keep your message short and simple.
   - Identify yourself as sender somewhere in the communicstion, include your name, postal address, and phone number.
   - Doublecheck the address or URL before sending a message.
   - When replying to a message, include the pertinent portions of the original message.
   - Don't write anything you would not want somebody othet than the receiver to read.
   - Check spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
   - Be sensitivee to others.
   - Don't use ssrcasm. It falls flat and doesn't come across.
   - Be careful with humor.

G. USING THE ASSURE MODEL WITH NETWORK RESOURCES
   1). Analyze Learners.Lesson development begins by identifying the audience.
   2). State Objectives. Before stating specific obejctives, should to explore how you want students to use the network.
   3). Select Methods, Media, and Materials. Selecting materials often begins by "surfing" the Web. Locate websites on a specific subject matter by using a search engine such as Google, Alta Vista, Web Crawler, or Yahoo!
   4). Utilize Media and Materials. The length of the lesson will depend on the scope of materials available, manner of presentation, and available time. When using the internet, provide time for students to search for relevant materials.
   5). Require Learner Participation. Get the students involved in finding the neccessary information and materials or making contact with individuals. The process of searching may br one of their most important outcomes, especially for early lessons using computer networks.
    6). Evaluate and Revise. In addition, computer networks and sites change frequently, and may be forced to change the lesson before offering it again.

H. FUTURE POSSIBILITIES

     Computer networks have altered the earlier institutional structures, which were based on transportation. In the past we operated on the assumption that, to learn, learners had to physically be in the "territory" of the teacher. However, some parents are growing more and more concerned about the excessively long bus rides their children take, as well as the high cost of transportation. These factors make it attractive to return to smaller and more numerous "attendance centers". The opportunity to improve the quality of education is a compelling reason for educators to continue to develop educstional applications for computer networks.



      Source : Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino et. 2002. Instructural Media  and Technologies for Learning volume 7. California: The University of California.

MULTIMEDIA

A. MULTIMEDIA KITS 

     A multimedia kits is a collection of teaching/learning materials involving more than one type of medium and organized around a single topic. Kits Drinclude CD-ROMs, filmstrips, slides, audiotapes, videotapes, still pictures, study prints, overhead transparencies, maps, worksheets, charts, graphs, booklets, real objects, and models. Sometimes multimedia kets are designed for the teacher to use in classroom presentations and designed for individual students or by small groups.

Advantages : 

     1). Interest : Because multimedia kits are multisensory.

     2). Cooperation : Kits can be an ideal mechanism for stimulating small-group project work. Cooperative learning activites can revolve around experiments, problem solving, role playing, or other types of hands-on practice.

     3). Logistics : Multimedia kits can be transported and used outside the classroom, such as in the media center or at home.

Limitations :

     1). Expense : Multimedia kits can be more expensive than with other, more conventional, methos.

     2). Time consuming : Time consuming to produce and maintain the materials.

     3). Replacement : Lost components can make the kit frustrating to use.

B. HYPERMEDIA

     Hypermedia refers to computer software that uses elements of text, graphics, video and audio connected in such a way that users can easily move within the information. Hypermedia is based on cognitive theories of how people structure knowledge and how they learn. It's designed to resemble the way people organize information with the concepts and their relationships. With hypermedia, one can link asynchronous data sources directly to compose and display nonsequential information that may include text, audio and vidual information. The is no continous flow of text, as in a textbook or novel. The intent of hypermedia is to provide users with possibilities to move about within a particular set of information without necessarily using a predetermined structure or sequence. Computer hypermedia systems can be used for several different purposes :

     a). Browsing : Users browse or navigate through the information by choosing routes that are of interest.

     b). Linking : Users can create their own special connections or links within the information.

     c). Authoring : Users can author or create their own unique collections of information, adding or linking text, graphics, and audio ss they wish. 

The button is used to move around in the hypermedia environment. The linking interface lets navigate or move about more quickly and precisely within a hypermedia environment. 

Advantages :

     1). Engrossing : The opportunity for deep involvement can capture and hold student interest.

     2). Multisensory : The incorporation of sounds and images along with text expands the channels to the mind.

     3). Connections : By using"hot buttons" students can connect ideal from different media sources, for example, connecting the sound of a foghorn with the word "lighthouse".

     4). Teacher and student creation : Software allows teachers and students to easily create their own hypermedia files, student projects can become opportunities for collaborative work.

Limitations :

     1). Getting lost.

     2). Lack of structure.

     3). Noninteractive : Programs can be simply one-way presentations of information with no specific opportunities for interactive practice with feedback.

     4). Time consuming : hypermedia programs tend to require more time for students to reach prespecified objectives.

C. INTERACTIVE MEDIA

     Computer based interactive media creates a multimedia learning environment that capitalizes on the features of both video and computer assisted instruction. It's an instruction delivery system in which recorded visuals, sound, and video materials are presented under computer control to viewers who not only see and hear the pictures and sounds but also make active responses with those responses affecting the pace and sequence of the presentation. The video portion of interactive media is provided through a CD-ROM, DVD, or the Web. Because CD-ROM discs can store many types of digital informstion including text, graphics, photographs, animation, and audio. Multimedia CD-ROM products are commonly found in school library media centers, primarily in the form of encyclopedias or other reference databases. The images can be presented in slow motion, fast motion, or frame by frame(as in a slide show). The audio portion may occupy two different narrations for each motion sequence.

The heart of an interactive mefia system is the computer, which provides the "intelligence" and interactivily required. The computer can command the system to present audio or video information, wait for the learner's response and branch to the appropriate point in the instructional program from that response.

Advantages :

     1). Multiple media : text audio, graphics, still pictures and video can all be combined in one easy to use system.

     2). Learner participation : The R of the ASSURE model is achieved with interactive video materials because they require that learners engage in activities.

     3). Individualization : Provided for branching allows instruction on remedial as well as enrichment levels.

     4). Flexibility.

Limitations :

     1). Cost : The most significant limitation to interactive video is the cost, although the prices of ready-mafe discs and machines are decreasing.

     2). Production expense : It's expensive to produce CD-ROM and DVD discs, making it necessary to rely on commercially prepared discs, which may not meet local needs.

     3). Ridigity : The discs cannot be changed once they have been made, therefore material may become outdated.

D. VIRTUAL REALITY

     Virtual reality (VR) is one of the newest multimedia applications of computer-based technologies. VR is a computer-generated three dimensional environment where the user can operate as an active participant. The user wears a special headpiece that contains a three dimensional liquid crystal video display and headphones. The essence of VR is the expansion of experiences of the user. Because VR place the user into the virtual environment, it provides an opportunity to interact with that environment in a unique way, giving the user "ultimate" chance to grasp new ideas.

Advantages :

     1). Safety : VR creates a realistic world without subjecting viewers to actual or imagined danger or hazards.

     2). Expensive.

     3). Opportunities to explore : VR allows students to experiment with aimulated environment.

Limitations :

     1). Cost : The equipment is extremely expensive.

     2). Complexity : The technology is complex and doesn't lend itself to most classroom uses.

     3). Limited titles.

E. EXPERT SYSTEMS

     Expert system is a software package that allows the collective wisdom of experts in a given field to be brought to bear on a problem. One of the first such systems to be developed is called MYCIN, is a program that helps train doctors to make accurate diagnoses of infectious diseases on the basis of tests and patient information fed into the computer. Expert system are slowly making their way into education. 

     One example that involves individualized learning is an expert system called CLASS LD. Developed at Utah State University, the program classifies learning disabilities by using an elaborate set of rules contributed by experts. In tests, the program has proven to be at least as accurate as informed special education practitioners. The next step is to develop a software package that will design an individualized education program (IEP) for children diagnosed by CLASS LD. Because many children with learning disabilities are in mainstreamed classes, the expert system would make more manageable the classroom teacher's job of providing appropriate instruction.

      Source : Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino et. 2002. Instructural Media  and Technologies for Learning volume 7. California: The University of California.

COMPUTER

A. ROLES OF COMPUTERS IN LEARNING

    The potential of computers in educational settings go far beyond direct instruction. One function is administrative-keeping schools records, scheduling classes, doing payroll, and managing student assessment data. Another is service oriented, as when guidance programs use computers to deliver career planning assistance. In the domain of instruction there are four broad classes of computer applications :
• As an object of instruction
• As a tool As an instructional device
• As a means of teaching logical thinking
   1). Object of Instruction The computer may itself be the object of instruction. For example, in computer literacy courses student learn about computers, and in vocational courses students learn to use computer on the job for data processing and analysis purposes. In this role, the computer is treated like any other machine one is learning to use.
   2).  In its role as a tool, the computer assists both teachers and students. Some of the roles of the computer are relatively simple, such as sophisticated calculator and typewriter. Other roles are more advanced, such as multimedia composer, presentation aid, communication device, and data retrieval source.
   3). Device Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) helps students learn specific skills. For example, Math Blaster Plus assists students in learning math facts (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) through drill-and-practice using an arcade game format. Software is now capable of providing students with complex tasks to engage them in real-world problems.
   4). Teaching Logical Thinking. Seymour Paper, in his 1982 book, Mindstorms, and again in his 1993 book, The Children’s Machine, suggests that the computer should be an “object to think with” not a dispenser of information. Using LOGO, a procedural language that was designed for learners, students can learn about the Complexity of the mathematics within their daily lives.
Advantages :
   - Learner control. Computer-based insteuction allows students some control over the rate and sequence of their learning(individualizatio ).
   - Special needs. Computer-assisted instruction is effective with special learners at risk students, students with diserve ethnic backgrounds, and students with disabilities.
   - Record keeping. The record-keeping ability of the computer makes individualized instruction feasible;teachers can prepare individual lessons for all students and monitor their progress.
   - Information management. Computer can over a growing knowledge base associated with the information explosion. They can manage all types of information :graphic, text, audio, and video.
Limitations :
   - Copyright.
   - High expectations.
   - Limited range of objectives.
   - Controlled environment.
   - Lack of social interaction.

B. INTEGRATING COMPUTERS INTO THE CURRICULUM

Computers in classrooms is only part of the tasks. The ultimate value of technology in education and training depends on how fully they are integrated into the curriculum. Instructors need a framework for using computer technology that coves a variety of learning styles and accommodates varied teaching methods. Most important, result need to be measurable against a clear set of goals and objectives-the second step in the ASSURE Model. In the classrooms where computer technology is integrated successfully, students use it with the same ease with which they use books, maps, pencil, and pens.
   1). Processing When engaged in thinking, students explore the possible connections between related ideas. Often they employ a technique referred to as concept mapping. Ideas about a topic are linked, forming a complex web of interrelated thoughts. Software packages such as Inspiration are designed to facilitate this process.
   2). Drill-and-practice programs lead  learners though a series of examples to increase dexterity and fluency in a skill. The computer does not display impatience and goes a head only when mastery is shown.
   3). In the tutorial role, the computer acts as the teacher. All interaction is between the computer and the learner. An example is Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing, which guides students to learn touch typing skills.
   4). A game activity may or may not entail simulation elements. Likewise, a game may or may not be instructional. It depends on whether the skill practiced in the game is an academic one-that is, related to a specific instructional objective or a work place skill.
   5). Simulation In this method, learners confront an approximation of areal-life situation. It allows realistic practice without the expense or risks otherwise involved.
   6). Discovery Is a general term to describe activities using an inductive approach to learning; that is, presenting problems that students solve though trial and error or systematic approaches. It approximates laboratory learning outside the classroom.
   7). Solving Learners use previously mastered skills to resolve a challenging problem. Students must examine the data or information presented, clearly define the problem, perhaps state hypotheses, perform experiments, then reexamine the data and generate a solution.
   8). Tools Using a word processing program for writing makes it easy for students to edit their works. One they have gathered their ideas into concept maps, they then begin to work those ideas into connected text.
   9). Tools Drawing and creating graphic is a fun activity for students.
Advantages :
   - Self-pacing. Students can move through the material at their own pace, being tested and branched at frequent intervals.
   - Total package. A major advantage from the administrative standpoint is having a total integrated package of hardware and software, there is no need to try to piece together your own network or to shop for and evaluate courseware.
   - Validated. The learning programs can be tested and valiated before distribution with a large base of client, the vendors can afford to invest in curriculum research and development.
Limitations :
   - Courseware quality. The quality of the courseware is variable; some of it is low-level, uninspiring drill and practice material.
   - Evidence of effectiveness. The effectiveness of these materials; most of the exiting studies have been commissioned by one of the vendors and have been conducted with less than acceptabl3 rigor.
   - Report. The individual progress reports given to teachers are often hard to interprent.

C. SOFTWARE SELECTION

   1).Selection criteria In addition, software programs, also called applications, are written to run on specific operating systems. An operating system, such as Mac os, Windows, or Unix is software that functions as the computer’s interface with the user. It determines precisely how user, computer, and application interact to produce the desired results.
a.  Accuracy Information should be presented in a clear and logical manner. Finally you need to examine the intent of the lesson and its relation to your intended student goals.
b. It is important that software follow sound educational techniques and principles. In a drill frequent informative feedback.
c. Learner Control Finally, the information needs to be presented in a manner designed to maintain student interest and involvement in the tasks.
d. Practical examples that relate to students’ own experience are more valuable within the learning process.
e.Ease of Use Ease of use is a particularly critical attribute in a situations where students are working individually or in small groups on different projects, using different software.
f. Special Features Color, graphic, animation, and sound should be presented in a consistent manner, using size , color, and location to reduce the cognitive burden of deciphering.

D. COMPUTER HARDWARE

1). Basic Components The physical equipment that makes up the computer is referred to as the hardware. A computer’s specific combination of hardware components is referred as its configuration.
2). Input Device. Transmit information into the computer. The most commonly used input device is the keyboard. Central Processing Unit. (CPU) is the core element, or “brain” that carries out all the calculations and controls thet total system.
3). Memory stores information for manipulation by the CPU. The memory contains the control-function-that is, the programs written to tell the CPU what to do in what order.
4). Storage The most common storage mechanism is the magnetic disk. Recordable CD-ROMs are becoming common. Storage capacity (measured in Mb or Gb) has expanded to keep pace with the rapidly growing memory demands of today’s software and the ever-increasing size f graphic and animation-laden multimedia data files.
5). Output Device Display results of your program. A television-type-monitor, referred to as a CRT (cathode-ray tube), is the usual Output device of a personal computer.

E. COMPUTER FACILITIES

1). The One-Computer Classroom One solution has been to have a computer placed in each classroom. This single computer is therefore available to the teacher and students to use throughout the day.
2). Multiple-Computer Classroom Is useful when the teacher wants to present to all the students simultaneously. The arrangement is helpful when the same software simultaneously.
3). The computer Laboratory When a teacher wants each student to be working on a computer during a lesson, it is necessary for the whole class to have access to computers simultaneously. Schools often place 15 to 20 computers together in a single room called a computer laboratory.


      Source : Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino et. 2002. Instructural Media  and Technologies for Learning volume 7. California: The University of California.

VIDEO

A. VIDEO FORMATS

     1. Videotape

   The VHS ½-inch format is a preferred medium for commercial distribution of moving images. Virtually all of us have rented a VHS version of a movie, and most of us have recorded a TV program on VHS for later or repeated viewing. Time-shifting the TV schedule has become a major sport in may homes and also current preferred format for amateur and nonstudio production of recorded moving images in education.

     2. DVD

   Digital videodisc is a medium offering digital storage and playback of full-motion video. Digital video images can be manipulated (e.g., content, size, and color can be changed), stored, duplicated, and replayed without loss of quality. Because videodiscs are in analog format that can change the material on them, but with digital video stored on CDs or in computer that can edit the content and sequence of the moving images.

   The disc is the same physical size as an audio CD or a CD-ROM but can hold enough data for four full-length feature films with high-quality soundtracks. Like CDs and CD-ROMs, DVD has instant random access and is highly durable. There is no distortion when watch a DVD in slow motion. DVD discs provide far superior sound and picture quality compared to a standard VHS videotape. Unlike videotape, DVD discs don't deteriorate over time.

     3. Videodisc

   Laser disc images are sharper than those from videotape. Videodisc images hava a horizontal resolution of 350 lines, compared with 240 lines for a videocassette. Also, the audio quality of videodisc is significantly better than that of videotape. In addition, videodiscs have two audio tracks, for either separate narrations or stereo sound.

     4. Internet Video

   Streaming mileans that the file doesn't have to be completely downloaded before it starts playing. The video content is actually downloading to the user's computer in a series of small information packets tjag arrive shortly before the viewer sees(or hears) the material.

B. SPECIAL ATTRIBUTES OF VIDEO

     1. Manipulation of Time

   Video permits us to increase or decrease the amount of time requared to observe an event and also can take out pieces of time.

a. Compression of Time : This technique, known as time lapse, has important instructional uses.

b. Expansion of Time : Time can also be expanded in motion media through a technique called slow motion.

     2. Manipulation of Space

   Motion media permit us to view phenomena in microcosm and macrocosm that is, at extremely close range or from a vasr distance. Video and live television allow to observe two events occuring simulataneously but many miles apart using split screen.

     3. Animatoon

   Animation is time and space that can manipulated. This technique in which the producer takes advantage of persistence of vision to give motion to otherwise inanimate objects.

     4. Understanding Video Conventions

   Video is not alone in its reliance on accepted conventions for interpretation and appreciation. Flashback techniques are regularly used in literaturr and usually accepted by readers. The theatrical convention of the aside is readily accepted by playgeors.

    Ø  Advantages

- Motion : moving images have an obvious advantage over still visuals in portraying concepts in which motion is essential to mastery.

- Processes : assembly line steps pr science experiments in which sequential movement is critical, can be shown more effectively.

- Risk-free observation : video allows learners to observe phenomena that might be dangerous to view directly, such as an eclipse of the sun, a volcanic eruption, or warface.

- Dramatization : dramatic recreations can bring historical events and personalities to life.

- Skill learning : repeated observation and practice.

- Affective learning : video can be useful in shaping personal and social attitudes.

- Problem solving.

- Cultural understanding.

- Establishing commonality.

    Ø  Limitations

- Fixed pace : although videos can be stopped for discussion, because the program runs at a fixed pace, some viewers many fall behind while others are waiting impatiently for the next point.

- Talking head.

- Still phenomena : it may be unsuitable for other topics where detailed study of a single visual is involved (e.g., a map, a wiring diagram, or an organization chart).

- logistics : training programs usually rent videos from a distributor or from corporate headquarters. This means that video must be ordered well in advance of their intended use.

     5. Educational Applications

a. Cognitive Skills : learners can observe dramatic recreations of historical events and actual recordings of more recent events. Color, sound, and motion make personalities come to life.

b. Demonstrations : video is great for showing how things work. Demonstrations of motor skills can be more easily seen through media than in real life.

c. Documentary : deals with fact, not fiction or fictionalized versions of fact.

d. Report and Portfolios : portfolios with a multimedia approach are being used instead of word processed term papers. Also can research a topic using books, databases, videofapes, videodiscs, CD-ROMs, and another media.

e. Training : according to training magazine, videotapes are used organizations with 100 or more employes. Many organization use video for the following : orientation of new employes, training in job-related skills, development of interpersonal abilities for management, introduction of new products, policies, or markets, customer training, standardization of training among dispersed offices.

C. SELECTING VIDEO

     1. Locating Materials

   Program guides and directories can help to abreast of available materials in your areas of interest and guide toward selection of materials best suited to particular teaching needs. Librarians, media specialists, and teachers working as partners shohld communicate constantly concerning the resources needed for instruction.

     2. Appraising Videos

   After have located some potentially useful videos, and then do to preview and appraise them. A good appraisal form will be brief enough not to be intimidating but complete enough yo help individuals choose materials that may be useful for current and future applications.

     3. Aponsored Videos

   Private companies, associations, and government agencies sponsor videos for a variety f reasons. Private companies may make them to promote their products or to enchange their public image. Associations and government agencies sponsor videos to promote causes, such as better health habits, conservation of natural resources, and proper use of park and recreation areas.

D. PRODUCING VIDEO

     In-house video refers to videos produced within one's own classroom or company. This medium thus works well with activities that are enhanced by immediate feedback: gorup dynamics sessions, athletic practice, skills training, and interpersonal techniques.

     1. Analog Video Production

   Vudeo production requires a camera, a recorder, a microphone, and perhaps editing equipment. Most cameras are of the viewfinder type. The viewfinder camera is so named because it hal built into a small TV set that allows the operator to monitor the image being received bu the pickup tube. Hand-held cameras usually come with a microphone built into the front of the camera.

     2. Digital Video Editing

   Digital video editing refers to the means by which video can be taken apart and put back together non-linearly using a computer and associated software. A video interface allows the user to connect analog 8-mm and VHS camcorders to a computer so cab edit video digitally regardless of its format. There are several methods fot storing moving images in a computer. One format is Quick Time, for use with Apple Mac OS and Windows operating systems. Application include Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia, which incorporates Quick Time"movies".

E.UTILIZING VIDEO

1. Preview the Materials : making sure that the material what you ordered and that it contains the object matter and treatment that you expected.

2. Prepare the Materials : you will need to schedule the video and the appropriate playback equipemnt. Set up and check the requipment for proper operation before the students arrive.

3. Prepare the Environment : provide proper lighting, seating, and volume control.

4. Prepare the Learners : setting demonstrate that learning is greatly enhanced when learners are prepared for the coming activity.

5. Provide the Learning Experience.

F. REQUIRE LEARNER PARTICULATION

     The possibilities for followup activities are virtually limitless. Common techniques include the following :

·         Discussion—Question-and-answer sessions, buzz groups, panel discussions, debates.

·         Dramatization—Role playing, skits, oral presentations.

·         Projects—Experiments, reports, exhibits, models, demonstrations, drawings, story writing, bulletin boards, media productions.

      Source : Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino et. 2002. Instructural Media  and Technologies for Learning volume 7. California: The University of California.

AUDIO

MENDENGAR DAN MENDENGARKAN

Mendengar dan mendengarkan bukanlah hal yang masuk akal, meskipun tentu saja mereka saling terkait. Dengan risiko penyederhanaan yang berlebihan, kita dapat mengatakan bahwa mendengar adalah proses fisiologis, sedangkan mendengarkan adalah proses psikologis.

Pendengaran adalah proses di mana gelombang suara yang memasuki bagian luar ditransmisikan ke cardrum, diubah menjadi getaran mekanis di telinga tengah, dan diubah di telinga bagian dalam menjadi impuls listrik yang berjalan ke otak.

Mendengarkan dimulai dengan kesadaran dan perhatian seseorang terhadap suara atau pola bicara (penerimaan), prosedur melalui identifikasi dan pengenalan sinyal pendengaran khusus (decoding), dan berakhir pada pemahaman (understanding).

MENGEMBANGKAN KETERAMPILAN MENDENGARKAN

Sampai saat ini, banyak perhatian dalam pendidikan formal diberikan untuk membaca dan menulis, sedikit diberikan untuk berbicara, dan pada dasarnya tidak ada yang diberikan untuk mendengarkan.

Anda dapat menggunakan sejumlah teknik untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mendengarkan siswa:

-   Panduan mendengarkan. Untuk membimbing mereka mendengarkan, berikan siswa beberapa tujuan atau pertanyaan sebelum mulai dengan petikan singkat dan satu atau dua tujuan. Kemudian secara bertahap menambah panjang bagian dan jumlah dan kompleksitas tujuan atau pertanyaan.

-    Berikan arahan. Beri arahan siswa secara individu atau sebagai kelompok dalam rekaman video. Anda kemudian dapat mengevaluasi kemampuan siswa untuk mengikuti instruksi ini. Dengan instruksi audio, Anda dapat memeriksa lembar kerja pada produk-produk kegiatan ketika memberikan arahan secara lisan mengamati bahwa hanya sekali saja 'atur peraturan agar siswa memberi nilai pada waktu Anda dan waktu mereka dan ketidakmampuan mereka untuk memperoleh lisensi diperkuat.

-   Mintalah siswa untuk mendengarkan ide-ide utama, detail, atau musyrik. Dengan mengingat tingkat usia siswa, Anda dapat menyajikan sebuah bagian lisan. Anda dapat membaca sebuah cerita dan meminta siswa sekolah dasar untuk menggambar apa yang terjadi. Mintalah siswa untuk mendengarkan gagasan utama, dan kemudian menuliskannya. Gunakan teknik ini juga, ketika Anda ingin siswa menggambar detail dan menyimpulkan bagian itu.

-   Gunakan konteks dalam mendengarkan. Siswa yang lebih muda dapat belajar membedakan makna dalam konteks audiotory dengan mendengarkan kalimat dengan kata-kata yang hilang dan kemudian memasok kata-kata yang sesuai.

-   Menganalisis struktur dari presentastions. Mintalah siswa untuk menguraikan (menganalisis dan mengatur) dan presentasi lisan Anda kemudian dapat menentukan seberapa baik mereka mampu membedakan ide-ide utama dan untuk mengidentifikasi subtopika.

-  Membedakan antara informasi yang relevan dan tidak relevan. Meminta siswa untuk mengidentifikasi ide utama dan tingkat (dari mont hingga relevan terakhir) semua ide lain yang disajikan teknik yang lebih sederhana untuk siswa elemen adalah kemudian mengidentifikasi kata-kata yang tidak relevan pada siswa atau kalimat yang tidak relevan dalam paragraf.

FORMAT-FORMAT AUDIO

Banyak materi yang direkam dan tersedia dalam format audio umum, diantaranya:

      1.  Audiotapes

Keuntungan dari audiotape adalah bisa membuat rekaman sendiri dan ekonomis, juga bisa membuat sinyal magnetik pada pita. Perangkat audio yang paling banyak digunakan adalah alat perekam kaset. Kaset diidentifikasi sesuai dengan jumlah waktu rekordingnya. Untuk cample, casctne C-60 dapat merekam suara 60 menit menggunakan kedua sisi (30 menit pada setiap sisi). Sedangkan C90 dapat merekam 45 menit di setiap sisi.

     2.  Compact Discs

Secara fisik, Compact Disc (CD) terlihat seperti mal, plat perak. Musik atau suara disimpan sebagai bit informasi. CD carrent berisi musik selama 80 menit. Keuntungan utama CD adalah ketahanannya terhadap kerusakan.  Nodadapat dibersihkan, dan goresan biasa tidak mempengaruhi pemutaran. Serta jika ada goresan yang dapat mempengaruhi kualitas sinyal audio, resin sekarang tersedia untuk memperbaikinya.

      3. MP3

MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3) adalah format kompresi audio yang membuat file-file audio yang besar tersedia dengan mengecilkannya menjadi file-file yang lebih kecil yang dapat dengan cepat dan mudah ditangkap di Internet.

Bagaimana cara kerja Compact Disc

-    Audiotapes memperbaiki urutan presentasi meskipun mungkin untuk memutar ulang kaset.

-   Dikelas, kaset dan CD bisa dibuat untuk memperkenalkan materi baru atau untuk menyediakan pendamping musik.

-   Ditingkat sekolah, kaset dan CD dapat digunakan untuk mengembangkan ritme, bercerita, bermain game, dan memerankan lagu .

-  Kaset audio untuk mengajar orang menggunakan program komputer tertentu menyediakan prosedur langkah demi langkah yang diperlukan.

-   Departemen personil sering menyediakan bahan-bahan pada kaset untuk didengarkan karyawan mereka.

MENGHASILKAN BAHAN KELAS DI TAPES KASET

Siswa dan guru dapat dengan mudah menyiapkan kaset mereka sendiri.  Siswa dapat menggunakan kaset untuk mengumpulkan sejarah lisan dan menyiapkan laporan buku lisan.  Guru dapat menyiapkan kaset untuk digunakan dalam instruksi langsung.  Latihan keterampilan, seperti pengucapan bahasa asing, juga dapat disediakan oleh kaset audio.

Semua kaset yang disiapkan selama wawancara disimpan di pusat media sekolah.  Petikan digandakan dan diedit ke dalam program untuk digunakan dengan kelas studi sosial lainnya dan untuk disiarkan oleh stasiun radio lokal.  Proyek rekaman video ini memiliki tujuan ganda yaitu memberikan informasi kepada siswa dan penduduk setempat tentang sejarah lokal dan mengumpulkan serta menjaga informasi yang mungkin hilang.

Kaset perekam dapat digunakan untuk menyajikan laporan buku.  siswa dapat merekam laporan buku mereka selama waktu belajar di pusat media atau di rumah.  Anda dapat mengevaluasi laporan dan menyimpan yang terbaik di arsip di pusat media.  Imbaulah siswa lain untuk mendengarkan mereka sebelum memilih buku untuk dibaca.  Batasi laporan hingga tiga menit, dan minta siswa mengekstraksi ide-ide utama dari buku dan mengatur pikiran mereka dengan hati-hati.  Selama rekaman, mereka melatih keterampilan berbicara mereka.  Imbaulah mereka untuk membuat laporan semenarik mungkin untuk menarik minat siswa lain dalam membaca buku.

Perekam tape dapat digunakan untuk merekam informasi yang diperoleh dari kunjungan lapangan.  Saat kembali ke ruang kelas, siswa dapat memutar kaset itu untuk diskusi dan tinjauan ulang.  Banyak museum, observatorik, dan area pameran publik lainnya sekarang menyediakan pengunjung dengan pesan yang direkam sebelumnya tentang berbagai item yang dipajang, yang dapat (dengan izin) direkam ulang untuk pemutaran kelas.  Siswa juga dapat merekam diri mereka membaca, mempresentasikan pidato, menampilkan musik, dan sebagainya.  Mereka kemudian dapat mendengarkan rekaman itu secara pribadi atau memiliki kritik kinerja oleh guru atau siswa lain.  Upaya awal dapat disimpan untuk perbandingan dengan pertunjukan di kemudian hari dan untuk penguatan pembelajaran.

DUPLICATING DAN EDITING AUDIOTAPES

Ini adalah prosedur yang relatif sederhana untuk menduplikasi rekaman audio yang dapat menggandakan kaset  dengan salah satu dari tiga metode: metode akustik, metode clectronic, dan metode duplikator kecepatan tinggi.  Metode akustik tidak memerlukan peralatan khusus, hanya dua perekam.  Satu perekam memutar kaset asli, dan suara ditransfer melalui mikrofon ke kaset kosong di perekam lain. Keuntungan utama rekaman video adalah kemudahannya disiapkan oleh guru dan peserta didik.

PEMECAHAN MASALAH PEMASANGAN KASET

Masalah / Kemungkinan Pemulihan :

·         Kaset keluar dari kaset dan snar di sekitar penggulung :

1.      Kaset yang sangat tipis, seperti yang ditemukan pada kaset yang lebih panjang (misalnya, C-120), sangat rentan terhadap hal ini.  Konversikan ke kaset yang lebih pendek (lebih tebal). 

2.      Hub plastik reel pengambil mungkin bergesekan dengan kaset.  Coba putar hub dengan pensil untuk membebaskannya.

3.      Spindle takeup tidak menarik cukup keras karena belanda atau sabuk rusak. Kaset diperbaiki oleh spesialis yang berkualifikasi.

4.      Ketegangan pita mungkin tidak memadai.  "Kondisikan" selotip dengan benar-benar maju cepat dan kemudian putar kembali.  dt adalah ide yang bagus untuk mengkondisikan semua kaset audio yang direkam sebelumnya dan kosong sebelum pertama kali menggunakannya)

·     Tombol "Rekam pada kaset tidak akan tinggal diam: Tab penguncian rekam di bagian belakang kaset telah pecah. Tempatkan pita di atas celah yang ditinggalkan oleh  tab yang hilang jika Anda ingin merekam sesuatu yang baru di kaset.

·         Desis di latar belakang: Demagnetisasi kepala (dilakukan oleh spesialis media atau teknisi).

·         Kunci frekuensi tinggi: Kepala tidak selaras atau aus. Periksa kepala.

·     Rendah  volume pemutaran Kepala kotor. Bersihkan dengan cairan pembersih kepala.

MEMILIH BAHAN AUDIO

Sebelum memilih bahan audio , andaharus menganalisis audiens anda dan menyatakan tujuan anda sesuai dengan model ASSURE.  Kemudian anda siap untuk memilih, memodifikasi, atau mendesain materi audio Anda. Bagian dari proses ini melibatkan menemukan bahan yang tersedia dan menaksirnya.  Jika tidak ada yang dapat diterima atau dimodifikasi, Anda dapat menghasilkan kaset audio Anda sendiri seperti yang dijelaskan pada bagian sebelumnya.  Dalam memilih bahan audio untuk digunakan dalam instruksi Anda, pertama-tama tentukan bahan apa yang tersedia secara lokal.  Hubungi spesialis media untuk menentukan apa yang tersedia di pusat media Anda.  Jika bahan yang sesuai tidak tersedia, lihat direktori yang sesuai (lihat Apendiks C; informasi tambahan muncul di CD-ROM "Class-Link Link Portofolio" dan di Situs Web Pendamping [http://www.prenhall.com/  heinich]).  Panduan navigasi untuk CD musik termasuk CD dengan Nilai Terbaik: CD Klasik dan CD Terbaik: Jazz dan Pop, diterbitkan setiap tahun oleh Peri (Voorheesville, NY).

Anda harus mempratinjau dan menilai materi yang diproduksi secara komersial dan lokal sebelum menggunakannya dengan siswa Anda.  Anda mungkin ingin menggunakan "Daftar Penilaian: Bahan Audio" untuk memandu keputusan pemilihan Anda.

MEMANFAATKAN BAHAN AUDIO

         Langkah selanjutnya setelah memilih atau memproduksi materi audio Anda adalah menggunakannya dengan siswa Anda. kelima ps sesuai untuk penggunaan kelompok bahan audio: pratinjau materi, siapkan materi, siapkan lingkungan, siapkan peserta didik, dan berikan pengalaman belajar.

·         1.   Melihat Pratinjau Materi

Pratinjau semua bahan audio, menggunakan "daftar periksa appreisal" sebagai bagian dari proses. Saat melihat pratinjau mereka, putuskan bagaimana Anda akan menggunakannya. Kutipan apa yang Anda rencanakan untuk digunakan? Bagaimana siswa akan terlibat dengan materi audio? Kegiatan tindak lanjut apa yang akan Anda gunakan?

·         2.   Siapkan Bahannya

Ketika Anda akan menggunakan media audio untuk presentasi kelompok, Anda harus berlatih mengoperasikan peralatan. Mengosongkan materi penting untuk menghindari penundaan dan kehilangan waktu. sebagai tambahan, isyarat setiap item ke lokasi awalnya bila memungkinkan. siapkan pengantar Anda dan tindak lanjuti. jika Anda harus memanipulasi bahan atau objek lain selama presentasi audio, pastikan untuk berlatih terlebih dahulu.

·         3.   Persiapkan Lingkungan

Mengatur ruang kelas atau lingkungan belajar anda sehingga semua siswa dapat mendengar audio. Pastikan bahwa mereka yang tidak terganggu oleh suara tidak dapat mendengarnya. Untuk individu dan kelompok kecil, gunakan headphone jika memungkinkan. Untuk kelompok besar, jangan gunakan unit perekam / pemutaran audio-kaset kecil. Speaker tidak cukup besar untuk menghasilkan volume yang memadai. Pastikan anda memiliki speaker berkualitas baik yang tidak merusak suaranya.

·         4.   Persiapkan Peserta Didik

Sebelum materi audio, komunikasikan kepada siswa bagaimana materi tersebut berkaitan dengan apa yang telah mereka pelajari sebelumnya, apa yang harus mereka lakukan atau pelajari dari materi itu sendiri, dan kegiatan tindak lanjut apa yang akan terjadi. Jika anda akan mempresentasikan kata-kata vocabullary baru atau istilah teknis, buatlah daftar di selebaran, papan tulis, atau transparansi kepala.

·         5.   Berikan Pembelajaran

Lingkungan kelas mungkin tidak ideal untuk pencapaian akademis anak-anak tuna rungu. Kebisingan kelas dan revebrasi dapat menyebabkan masalah bagi anak-anak ini. Solusi potensial dalam menambahkan perangkat peredam kebisingan seperti tirai dan perkayuan. Strategi lain adalah dengan menggunakan sistem amplifikasi bidang suara. Sistem seperti itu terdiri dari guru yang memakai mikrofon nirkabel dan memiliki beberapa speaker kecil yang terletak di seluruh kelas. Sistem ini juga membantu anak-anak yang menderita pilek, mereka yang memiliki kelainan yang mungkin mempengaruhi pendengaran mereka, dan mereka yang bahasa inggris adalah bahasa kedua (Crandell, Smalldino, & Flexer, 1995).

·         6.   Pemanfatan Berbasis Siswa

Kami telah membahas penggunaan materi audio kelompok. Ada saat-saat ketika siswa akan menggunakan materi audio untuk pembelajaran individu dan untuk membuat materi mereka sendiri. Penerapan utulisasi berbasis siswa dijelaskan lebih menonjol dalam bab ini. Peran anda akan bervariasi dari yang panduan ke yang abserver, ketika anda memiliki keterlibatan terbatas.

MEMBUTUHKAN PARTISIPASI PELAJAR

Sebelum Anda memulai alasannya, tentukan untuk mendapatkan dan membuat siswa Anda terlibat secara aktif. Salah satu tekniknya adalah memberi siswa satu set pertanyaan untuk dijawab selama mendengarkan. Peserta didik dapat memerankan peran yang dituangkan dalam materi. Kaset bahasa asing dapat mencakup paises untuk pelajar untuk berlatih pengucapan. Setelah mendengarkan cerita, mereka dapat menggambar adegan dari deskripsi audio.

EVALUASI DAN KENYAMANAN

Komponen terakhir dari model jaminan untuk pembelajaran yang efektif adalah evaluasi dan revisi. Evaluasi dan revisi adalah komponen penting untuk pengembangan pengajaran yang berkualitas. Ada banyak tujuan evaluasi. Seringkali satu-satunya bentuk yang terlihat dalam pendidikan adalah tes kertas dan pensil yang diklaim dapat digunakan untuk penilaian prestasi siswa. Menilai prestasi pelajar dan mengevaluasi metode dan media.

Evaluasi bukanlah akhir dari instruksi. Ini adalah titik awal dari siklus berikutnya dan berkelanjutan dalam model jaminan sistematis kami untuk penggunaan media pembelajaran yang efektif. Revisi adalah langkah terakhir dari siklus pengajaran untuk duduk dan melihat hasil pengumpulan data evaluasi Anda.

Sebuah Penilaian Prestasi Pelajar

Langkah pertama dalam menjawab pertanyaan ini diambil di dekat awal model jaminan, ketika Anda merumuskan tujuan Anda termasuk kriteria kinerja yang dapat diterima.

Metode penilaian prestasi tergantung pada sifat tujuan. Beberapa tujuan memerlukan relativitas keterampilan kognitif sederhana misalnya mengingat hukum Ohm, membedakan kata sifat dari kata keterangan yang menggambarkan kebijakan ketidakhadiran perusahaan, atau merangkum prinsip-prinsip Deklarasi kemerdekaan. Penilaian yang dihasilkan harus sesuai dengan tujuan yang dinyatakan sebelumnya dalam model jaminan.

Tugas penilaian otentik biasanya memiliki karakteristik sebagai berikut :

-    Memiliki lebih dari satu pendekatan yang benar.

-    Dipikirkan memprovokasi tidak hanya membutuhkan mengingat fakta yang dihafal.

-    Membutuhkan pengambilan keputusan bukan hanya menghafal.

-    Mengembangkan pemikiran dalam berbagai cara.

-    Mengarah ke masalah lain yang harus dipecahkan.

-    Angkat pertanyaan lain.

 Jenis penilaian otentik meliputi : 

-    Proyek siswa seperti tugas menulis, proyek sains dan poster.

-    Pertunjukan seperti memberikan pidato atau menunjukkan senam atau bela diri.

-    Tanya jawab lisan oleh guru dan siswa lainnya.

-    Diskusi topik konvensional dan kejadian terkini.

-    Portofolio, termasuk contoh siswa bekerja dengan ringkasan dan refleksi.

Source : Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino et. 2002. Instructural Media  and Technologies for Learning volume 7. California: The University of California.